Background: Electrolyte disturbances are frequently encountered in patients with Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus (T2DM) and are closely associated with poor glycaemic regulation, renal dysfunction, cardiovascular complications, and increased morbidity. Pharmacist-led interventions have emerged as a valuable strategy for optimizing therapeutic outcomes; however, their influence on long-term electrolyte homeostasis remains inadequately characterized. Objective: To evaluate the longitudinal impact of pharmacist-provided educational and therapeutic interventions on electrolyte balance among patients with T2DM over a 12-month follow-up period. Methods: A controlled longitudinal study was conducted involving patients with T2DM allocated to either an interventional group receiving structured pharmacist-led care or a control group receiving standard management. Serial assessments of serum sodium, potassium, chloride, calcium, magnesium, and phosphorus were performed at baseline and at 3-, 6-, 9-, and 12-month intervals. Temporal changes in electrolyte parameters were analyzed using comparative statistical methods, with significance established at p<0.05. Results: Participants receiving pharmacist intervention demonstrated substantial and sustained improvements in electrolyte regulation throughout the study period. Significant reductions in serum sodium and potassium concentrations were observed in the interventional cohort, accompanied by progressive normalization of chloride levels (p<0.001). Magnesium concentrations increased markedly from baseline, indicating enhanced metabolic and cellular electrolyte equilibrium. Calcium levels remained physiologically stable, whereas phosphorus concentrations exhibited a modest but significant decline over time. In contrast, the control group displayed comparatively limited or inconsistent electrolyte modulation across follow-up assessments. The magnitude and consistency of change were significantly greater among intervention recipients, suggesting superior maintenance of electrolyte homeostasis. Conclusion: Pharmacist-led interventions exerted a pronounced positive effect on long-term electrolyte stability in patients with T2DM. Integrating clinical pharmacists into multidisciplinary diabetes care may facilitate improved metabolic regulation, enhance biochemical monitoring, and mitigate the risk of electrolyte-related complications, ultimately contributing to better clinical outcomes and disease management.

Background: Insulin therapy is required in gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) when glycaemic targets are not achieved through lifestyle modification and rapid acting insulin analogues such as regular aspart insulin have been developed to provide more physiological postprandial and fasting glucose control than regular human insulin. This study aimed to compare glycemic control, including fasting, postprandial and glycated haemoglobin parameters, between regular aspart insulin and regular human insulin in women with gestational diabetes mellitus. Methods: This randomized controlled trial was conducted in the outpatient department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, BIRDEM General Hospital, Dhaka, from October 2023 to January 2025, among 102 pregnant women with GDM diagnosed after 24 weeks of gestation. Participants were randomly allocated to regular aspart insulin (Group I, n=54) or regular human insulin (Group II, n=48); 49 and 46 women respectively completed follow up at 28, 32 and 36 weeks of gestation and after delivery. Fasting blood sugar, postprandial glucose two hours after breakfast, lunch and dinner and HbA1c were compared using SPSS version 26, with p&lt;0.05 considered significant. Results: Mean age of participants was 29.2 ± 4.6 years and 63.16% were obese before pregnancy. Fasting glucose was significantly lower in Group I at every assessment point (p&lt;0.0001). Postprandial glucose values were also significantly higher in Group II at 28 weeks (p&lt;0.05 for all three postprandial readings), but these differences attenuated by 32 and 36 weeks and after delivery. HbA1c was comparable between groups at 28 weeks (6.1 ± 1.0 versus 6.4 ± 1.4, p=0.327) and 36 weeks (5.8 ± 1.0 versus 5.9 ± 1.4, p=0.697). Conclusion: Regular aspart insulin provided superior fasting glycaemic control throughout pregnancy and more favourable early postprandial control than regular human insulin, while overall glycated haemoglobin remained comparable, supporting its use as an effective glycaemic management option in gestational diabetes mellitus.

Introduction: Preeclampsia constitutes a significant complication during pregnancy, contributing notably to maternal and perinatal morbidity and mortality on a global scale. Calcium is vital for the functioning of vascular smooth muscle and the regulation of blood pressure. However, the association between maternal serum calcium levels and the severity of preeclampsia remains insufficiently elucidated, particularly within the context of Bangladesh. Objective: To evaluate the association between maternal serum calcium levels and the severity of preeclampsia among pregnant women at Dhaka Medical College Hospital. Methods: This cross-sectional observational study was conducted in the Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Dhaka Medical College Hospital, Bangladesh, from January to June 2026. A total of 120 pregnant women diagnosed with preeclampsia, categorized into non-severe (n=70) and severe (n=50) groups. Serum calcium levels were measured, and demographic, obstetric, and clinical characteristics were recorded. Data were analyzed using appropriate statistical tests, with p<0.05 considered significant. Results: Women with severe preeclampsia had significantly lower mean serum calcium levels compared to those with non-severe disease (7.82 ± 0.61 mg/dL vs. 8.64 ± 0.52 mg/dL; p<0.001). Serum calcium <8.5 mg/dL was strongly associated with severe preeclampsia (OR=4.5, 95% CI: 1.96–10.15, p<0.001), and this association persisted after multivariable adjustment (AOR=3.92, 95% CI: 1.64–9.37, p=0.002). Significant negative correlations were observed between serum calcium and both systolic (r=-0.49) and diastolic (r=-0.43) blood pressures. Conclusion: Low maternal serum calcium is linked to severe preeclampsia, suggesting it could help identify women at risk. However, causality can't be confirmed due to the study's cross-sectional nature. Longitudinal research with ionized calcium, vitamin D, and diet assessment is needed to clarify mechanisms before clinical use.

The vitality of the ocean as concerns navigation, mineral resource extraction, environmental protection and national security cannot be over emphasised. The strategic and indispensable importance of the ocean has resulted in conflicts between countries over its control. This is further exacerbated with the commencement and operationalisation of offshore mining. The practicality and legality in the exercise of jurisdiction in maritime zones such as the Exclusive Economic Zone and the Continental Shelf have been met with stiff resistance in some circumstances. This article therefore seeks to determine and evaluate the legal dispensations permitting Cameroon to legislate and enforce its national laws in the maritime zones beyond its territorial sovereignty. To effectively do this, this research adopts both the empirical and doctrinal research methodology, making use of both primary and secondary data. The legal and genetic methods were used to analyse the data. The research concludes that, the sovereign rights enjoyed by Cameroon over the Exclusive Economic Zone and the Continental Shelf are legally backed by both international and national laws. However, these rights are limited to exploration, exploitation, conservation and management of maritime resources, with third States enjoying some freedoms over these maritime zones. The freedoms include navigation, overflight, laying of submarine cables and pipelines within these maritime zones as long as these third States comply with the sovereign rights of the State of Cameroon. It is therefore recommended that, the existing sectoral laws adopted by Cameroon over these maritime zones should be rigorously implemented and enforced in order to ensure uniformity and compliance.

Background: A clinically unhealthy cervix may be associated with benign inflammatory conditions as well as cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN) and invasive carcinoma. Colposcopy provides magnified assessment of cervical abnormalities and facilitates targeted biopsy, while histopathology remains the definitive diagnostic method. This study evaluated colposcopic findings and their correlation with histopathological diagnoses among women with a clinically unhealthy cervix. Methods: This prospective observational study was conducted in the Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Dhaka Medical College Hospital, Bangladesh, from January to June 2026. A total of 150 women with a clinically unhealthy cervix were enrolled. All participants underwent clinical examination, colposcopic evaluation, and colposcopy-directed cervical biopsy. Histopathological findings were considered the reference standard. The diagnostic performance of colposcopy for detecting CIN 2+ was assessed, and agreement between colposcopic impression and histopathological diagnosis was evaluated using Cohen’s kappa. Results: The mean age was 44.1±10.2 years, and 31.3% were aged 41–50 years. Abnormal vaginal discharge was the commonest complaint (60.7%), while acetowhite epithelium was the most frequent colposcopic finding (48.7%). Histopathology revealed chronic cervicitis/inflammatory lesions in 34.7%, CIN 1 in 19.3%, CIN 2 in 11.3%, CIN 3 in 9.3%, and invasive squamous cell carcinoma in 6.7%. Overall, CIN 2+ was identified in 27.3%. Colposcopy showed 85.4% sensitivity, 83.5% specificity, and 84.0% diagnostic accuracy for CIN 2+. Agreement with histopathology was fair (κ=0.37, p<0.001). Conclusion: Colposcopy is a useful diagnostic tool for evaluating clinically unhealthy cervices, but histopathological confirmation remains essential for definitive diagnosis.

Background: Early initiation of breastfeeding within the first hour of life is a critical intervention for reducing neonatal morbidity and mortality. However, timely initiation remains suboptimal in many settings. This study aimed to identify maternal and neonatal characteristics associated with early initiation of breastfeeding. Methods: This cross-sectional study was conducted in the Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology at Dhaka Medical College Hospital from July 2012 to December 2012. A total of 100 postpartum mothers were enrolled using purposive sampling. Data were collected through direct interviews using a pre-designed data collection sheet and analyzed using SPSS software. Results: Among the 100 mothers, 57% were below 25 years of age, 62% had primary level education, 82% were housewives, 72% were Muslim and 68% resided in rural areas. The majority (58%) belonged to the lower socioeconomic group and 72% were primipara. Regarding neonatal characteristics, 74% of babies were born at term, 58% were male and 62% had low birth weight (< 2.5 kg). Statistically significant associations were observed for gestational age (P = 0.001) and birth weight (P = 0.001), while gender did not reach statistical significance (P = 0.060). Conclusion: Maternal characteristics such as younger age, lower education, primiparity, lower socioeconomic status, along with neonatal factors like preterm gestational age and low birth weight, were prominent among the study population. These findings highlight the need for targeted breastfeeding support and counseling, particularly for vulnerable groups, to promote early initiation and improve neonatal outcomes.

This study re-examines domestic violence in contemporary African drama through the under-researched question of male victimhood, while maintaining the importance of scholarship on women’s experiences of gender-based violence. The study is organised into five major parts. The first establishes the problem, objectives, research questions, scope, significance, and qualitative methodology, positioning the study around the concept of the male victimhood gap. The second develops the conceptual and theoretical framework by examining gender, masculinity, patriarchy, domestic violence, silence, and victimhood, drawing particularly on Connell’s Hegemonic Masculinity Theory, Foucault’s theory of relational power, and Butler’s Gender Performativity Theory. The third applies these perspectives to selected Nigerian dramatic texts, including Altine’s Wrath, Rainstorm in the Desert, and Our Wives Have Gone Mad Again, to examine patriarchal domination, threatened masculinity, gender reversal, and shifting power relations. The fourth extends the discussion comparatively across African dramatic traditions, identifying similarities and differences in the construction of masculinity, domestic authority, vulnerability, and resistance. The fifth synthesises the findings and concludes that victimhood is relational and contextual and not permanently determined by biological sex. The study demonstrates that contemporary African drama can complicate the conventional male-perpetrator/female-victim binary by revealing how masculine expectations, interpersonal power, violence, silence, and resistance intersect to produce male vulnerability without diminishing the structural realities of violence against women.

Background: Reflective practice is internationally recognised as a foundational mechanism for nursing professional development; however, no validated structural model links Gibbs’ Reflective Cycle to measurable clinical performance, evidence-based practice (EBP) adoption, professional competence, and patient safety outcomes among Saudi Arabian hospital nurses. The Gibbs Reflective Nursing Excellence Model (GRNEM) is proposed to address this gap. Objectives: This review synthesises peer-reviewed evidence (2021–2026) on: (1) the application of Gibbs’ Reflective Cycle among clinical nurses; (2) relationships between reflective practice and clinical performance, EBP, professional competence, and patient safety; and (3) the evidence base supporting GRNEM development and validation in Saudi Arabian hospital settings. Methods: A systematic review followed PRISMA 2020 guidelines. Six databases (PubMed, CINAHL, Scopus, Web of Science, MEDLINE, and the Cochrane Library) were searched for studies published between January 2021 and June 2026. Two independent reviewers screened 1,247 records; 24 studies met all inclusion criteria. Quality appraisal was performed using the Mixed Methods Appraisal Tool (MMAT) and Joanna Briggs Institute (JBI) checklists, with narrative and thematic synthesis. Results: Five overarching themes were identified: Gibbs’ Reflective Cycle as a structured professional development framework; reflective practice and clinical performance; EBP adoption in Saudi Arabian nursing; professional competence and nursing values; and patient safety culture in MNGHA and Saudi hospital settings. Structured reflective practice was consistently associated with improved clinical performance (k=9), EBP adoption (k=7), professional competence (k=5), and patient safety culture (k=3). Conclusion: Findings provide a robust evidence base confirming the theoretical plausibility, contextual relevance, and empirical foundation of GRNEM for Saudi Arabian tertiary hospital nursing, with implications for nursing education, clinical governance, and Saudi Vision 2030 health policy.

Background: Nursing research and scholarly publication underpin evidence-based practice, yet many nurses report barriers that limit their engagement in conducting and disseminating research. Data on these barriers among hospital-based nurses in Saudi Arabia's Eastern Province remain limited. Objectives: This study aimed to identify the barriers nurses face in conducting and publishing scientific research at King Abdulaziz Hospital, Al-Ahsa; to assess the impact of these barriers; and to examine their association with nurses' socio-demographic and professional characteristics. Methods: A quantitative, descriptive, cross-sectional study was conducted among 127 nursing staff (33.0% response rate from a target population of 385), recruited via convenience sampling. Data were collected using a 45-item structured, self-administered questionnaire adapted from Hakami (2023) and distributed through Microsoft Forms. Thirty-four barrier items were scored on a 4-point scale (strongly disagree = 0, disagree = 0, agree = 1, strongly agree = 2); an overall score ≥ 60% of the maximum was classified as “high barrier.” Descriptive statistics, chi-square tests, independent-samples t-tests, and one-way ANOVA were used (α = .05). Results: Respondents were predominantly female (90.6%) and non-Saudi (85.8%), with a mean age of 40.9 years (SD = 9.3). The most highly endorsed barriers were limited training courses on publishing (85.0% agreement), insufficient time to conduct research (82.7%), high cost of publication (83.5%), and lack of clarity around journal guidelines (89.8%). Only 10 respondents (7.9%) met the high-barrier threshold overall; mean total barrier score was 25.6 (SD = 12.9) of 68 (37.7% of maximum). No demographic variable was significantly associated with the high/low barrier classification, although age group was significantly associated with the continuous barrier score, F(3, 123) = 3.80, p = .012, with nurses younger than 30 years reporting the highest scores. Conclusion: Structural and institutional barriers — particularly insufficient training, time, and financial support — are more salient than personal writing or language barriers among this nursing population. Targeted institutional interventions, especially for early-career nurses, are recommended to strengthen nursing research capacity.

Background: Adenomyosis and leiomyoma are common benign uterine disorders with overlapping clinical and imaging features, making accurate preoperative diagnosis challenging. This study evaluated the diagnostic value of individual transvaginal ultrasonography (TVS) criteria for adenomyosis and leiomyoma using histopathology as the reference standard. Methods: This analytical cross-sectional study was conducted among 150 women aged 30–55 years with TVS-diagnosed adenomyosis, leiomyoma, or both who subsequently underwent hysterectomy, myomectomy, or adenomyomectomy and had histopathological confirmation. Participants were enrolled using purposive sampling. Individual TVS criteria for adenomyosis and leiomyoma were compared with corresponding histopathological findings. Statistical analyses were performed using SPSS version 26.0, with p<0.05 considered statistically significant. Results: Leiomyoma was the most common diagnosis (61.33%), followed by combined adenomyosis and leiomyoma (26.00%) and adenomyosis alone (12.67%). For adenomyosis, no distinction of the endometrial-myometrial junction (78.9%), asymmetry of the anterior and posterior myometrium (83.3%), heterogeneous myometrial echotexture (80.3%) and myometrial cysts with fibrosis (62.5%) showed significant associations with histopathology (all p<0.0001). For leiomyoma, clear tumor margin demarcation (96.7%), peripheral vascularity on color Doppler (95.6%), irregular uterine surface (93.5%) and irregular endometrial surface (95.7%) were also significantly associated with histopathological confirmation (p≤0.005). Conclusion: Individual TVS criteria demonstrated significant diagnostic value for adenomyosis and leiomyoma. Recognition of these sonographic features may improve preoperative diagnostic accuracy and support appropriate clinical management.

Even though there have been major scientific developments in the fields of pharmaceutical analytical chemistry, manufacturing science, and regulatory science over the last twenty years, the incorporation of validated innovations into routine industrial practice remains slow, irregular, and incomplete. Although Quality by Design (QbD), Process Analytical Technology (PAT), continuous manufacturing (CM), Real-Time Release Testing (RTRT), and artificial intelligence (AI) are backed by strong scientific bases and have clear regulatory routes, their adoption differs greatly from product to product, facility to facility, and region to region. This structured narrative review uses implementation science, a field that systematically examines methods for integrating evidence into everyday practice, to examine innovations in pharmaceutical analytical and manufacturing processes. The review brings together the regulatory environments in the United States (21 CFR Parts 210/211, the FDA Emerging Technology Program, Quality Management Maturity), in the European Union (EudraLex Volume 4, Annex 1 on sterile manufacturing, the reform of EU pharmaceutical legislation), and in international frameworks (ICH Q8–Q14, M7, Q3D; WHO GMP; PIC/S Annex 11). Based on the Consolidated Framework for Implementation Research (CFIR), the RE-AIM evaluation model, and the Expert Recommendations for Implementing Change (ERIC) compilation, the review links implementation strategies to the various domains of pharmaceutical innovation. It examines FDA drug shortage reporting, analyzes 1,766 FDA Warning Letters (from 2016 to 2023), examines biosimilar uptake, and reviews regulatory submissions for continuous manufacturing. The review concludes with an implementation science framework tailored to the pharmaceutical industry, an example KPI dashboard, and 12 evidence-based recommendations. The main point is that, for a number of well-established innovations, the ability to implement them is now the main barrier to their routine adoption.

Background: Accurate interpretation of cardiotocography (CTG) during labor is essential for identifying potential fetal compromise and supporting timely clinical decision-making. The Fresh Eyes approach uses collaborative CTG review by a second clinician as an additional safety process to support interpretation and escalation. Objective: To evaluate sustained compliance with the Fresh Eyes approach to CTG review and describe neonatal outcomes, particularly clinically confirmed hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy (HIE), in a Labor and Delivery unit. Methods: A quality improvement study was conducted over 13 months, from July 2024 to July 2025. Eligible CTG records of mothers in active labor at ≥27 weeks' gestation were audited using an approved Fresh Eyes compliance checklist. Monthly compliance with core process indicators and neonatal-outcome capture within the audit was assessed descriptively. Delivery volume and clinically confirmed HIE cases were also monitored. Results: A total of 1,198 CTG records were audited. Compliance with Fresh Eyes review within 1–2 hours, documentation of clinicians' signatures and badge numbers, and documentation in BESTCare remained at 100% throughout the monitoring period. Neonatal outcomes were captured within the audit in 1,068 records (89.1%). Among 1,683 deliveries, five clinically confirmed HIE cases were identified, corresponding to 3.0 cases per 1,000 deliveries. Because Fresh Eyes compliance showed no variability, an association between compliance and HIE occurrence could not be statistically evaluated. Conclusion: The Fresh Eyes approach demonstrated sustained feasibility as a structured collaborative CTG review process. Continued monitoring of interpretation quality, neonatal-outcome capture within the audit, and multidisciplinary review of adverse outcomes is warranted.

Background: Medication adherence and health-related quality of life (HRQoL) serve as key determinants of therapeutic success in type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). While sodium–glucose cotransporter-2 (SGLT-2) inhibitors and dipeptidyl peptidase-4 (DPP-4) inhibitors continue to be widely recommended as add-on therapies, comparative real-world evidence on adherence and QoL outcomes remains limited. Objective: To evaluate and compare medication adherence and QoL in T2DM patients receiving SGLT-2 inhibitors versus DPP-4 inhibitors administered as adjunct therapies. Methods: A prospective, observational cohort study was undertaken for a period of 12 months at a tertiary hospital and affiliated clinics. In total, 200 individuals with T2DM (100 per group) were followed after initiating either SGLT-2 inhibitors (empagliflozin/dapagliflozin) or DPP-4 inhibitors (sitagliptin/linagliptin). Medication adherence assessment was conducted by means of 8-item Morisky Medication Adherence Scale (MMAS-8) and pill counts, whereas HRQoL underwent evaluation with the Diabetes-39 (D-39) questionnaire at baseline, 6 months, and 12 months. Statistical analyses involved repeated measures ANOVA and logistic regression. Results: Both groups demonstrated significant improvements in adherence and QoL from baseline (p < 0.001). Adherence scores increased from 5.0 ± 0.82 to 8.0 ± 0.82 in the SGLT-2 group and from 6.0 ± 0.82 to 9.67 ± 0.47 in the DPP-4 group, with consistently higher adherence in the DPP-4 cohort (p < 0.001). QoL improved more markedly in the SGLT-2 group (5.5 ± 1.51 to 7.96 ± 1.04; Δ = +2.46) compared to the DPP-4 group (4.95 ± 0.81 to 6.35 ± 0.48; Δ = +1.4; p < 0.001). Conclusion: Significant enhancements in adherence and QoL were observed with SGLT-2 and DPP-4 inhibitors in T2DM patients. DPP-4 inhibitors were associated with superior adherence, while SGLT-2 inhibitors conferred greater QoL improvements. These findings underscore the importance of tailoring therapy to optimize both clinical and patient-reported outcomes in long-term diabetes management.

Rheumatic mitral stenosis, atrial fibrillation, and marked left atrial remodeling create a strong substrate for intracardiac thrombosis and systemic embolism. We report a 67-year-old woman with a previous ischemic stroke who had not received long-term anticoagulation or cardiological follow-up and presented with progressive exertional dyspnea, lower-limb edema, and signs of right-sided heart failure. Electrocardiography showed atrial fibrillation. Transthoracic and transesophageal echocardiography demonstrated rheumatic mitral stenosis with a mitral valve area of 1.5 cm² and a mean transmitral gradient of 8 mmHg, massive left atrial enlargement, dense spontaneous echo contrast with sludge, and multiple thrombi; the largest measured 60 × 40 mm. Therapeutic anticoagulation was initiated. Because of symptomatic valvular disease and the extensive thrombus burden, the patient underwent mitral valve replacement with left atrial thrombectomy. An organized 60 × 40 mm thrombus was removed, and postoperative recovery was uneventful. This case illustrates that thromboembolic risk in rheumatic mitral stenosis may be driven as much by atrial fibrillation, atrial remodeling, and blood stasis as by the transmitral gradient itself, and highlights the central role of transesophageal echocardiography in defining thrombus burden and guiding treatment.

The development of multifunctional photocatalysts capable of simultaneously addressing solar energy conversion, carbon-neutral fuel production, and environmental remediation remains a significant challenge due to rapid charge carrier recombination and limited visible-light utilization. In this study, a novel CoFe₂O₄/BiVO₄/Bi₂WO₆/g-C₃N₄ Z-scheme multi-heterojunction photocatalyst was successfully synthesized via a combination of hydrothermal and in situ deposition methods to achieve highly efficient solar-driven photocatalytic performance. Structural, morphological, and spectroscopic characterizations confirmed the successful construction of a tightly integrated multi-heterojunction with intimate interfacial contact among all constituent phases. The engineered Z-scheme architecture significantly enhanced visible-light harvesting, facilitated rapid spatial separation of photogenerated charge carriers, and suppressed electron–hole recombination. Electrochemical analyses further verified reduced charge-transfer resistance and improved interfacial charge transport. Under simulated solar irradiation, the optimized photocatalyst exhibited outstanding photocatalytic performance, achieving hydrogen evolution at a rate of 2138 μmol h⁻¹ g⁻¹, while CO₂ photoreduction generated CO (18 μmol g⁻¹ h⁻¹) and CH₄ (16 μmol g⁻¹ h⁻¹) as the major solar fuels. Simultaneously, the composite demonstrated 98.4% degradation of representative organic pollutants with 86.7% mineralization efficiency, highlighting its excellent capability for wastewater purification. Radical trapping experiments and band structure analysis revealed that photogenerated electrons together with •OH and •O₂⁻ radicals were the dominant reactive species governing the enhanced photocatalytic activity. The superior performance was attributed to the synergistic interaction of CoFe₂O₄, BiVO₄, Bi₂WO₆, and g-C₃N₄, which provided broad-spectrum solar absorption, abundant active sites, enhanced redox capability, and efficient charge migration through the direct Z-scheme pathway. Furthermore, the photocatalyst retained 94.6% of its initial activity after five consecutive photocatalytic cycles, confirming its excellent structural stability and long-term durability. This work presents an effective strategy for designing advanced Z-scheme multi-heterojunction photocatalysts that integrate solar energy conversion, CO₂ utilization, hydrogen production, and environmental remediation within a single high-performance platform, offering considerable potential for sustainable energy and environmental applications.